Microorganism
History
Evolution
Further information: Timeline of evolution
unicellular organisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth, about 34 billion years. Further evolution was slow, and about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, all organisms are microscopic. Thus, for most of the history of life on Earth the only forms of life were microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years, which shows that the morphology of micro-organisms has changed little since the Triassic Period.
Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly and microbes such as bacteria can also exchange genes freely by conjugation, transformation and transduction between widely divergent species. This horizontal transfer of genes associated with a mutation rate high, and many other means of genetic variation, allows microorganisms to swiftly evolve (via natural selection) to survive in environments new and respond to environmental constraints. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the recent development of "super-bugs' pathogenic bacteria resistant to modern antibiotics.
Pre-Microbiology
The possibility that microorganisms exist has been discussed for many centuries before their actual discovery in the 17th century. The first idea known to indicate the possibility of spreading diseases through agencies never been one of the Roman scholar Varro Terentius in a book titled In the first century BC Agriculture in which he warns against locating a marsh near farm:
and because there are some tiny creatures that breed can be seen through the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and cause serious illness.
In the Canon of Medicine (1020), Ab Al Ibn Sn (Avicenna) stated the secretion of the body is contaminated by the fault of foreign land before being infected. He also speculated as tuberculosis and other diseases could be contagious, ie they were infectious diseases, and used to limit the quarantine spread.
When the Black Death bubonic plague reached Andalucia in Spain in the 14th century, Ibn Khatima wrote that infectious diseases were caused by contagious "minute" organisms entering the human body. Later, in 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases have been caused by entities seedlike securities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact or even without contact over long distances.
All these claims at the beginning of the existence of microorganisms were speculative and not based on data or science. Micro-organisms have unproven, observed or properly and accurately described until the 17th century. The reason is that all these first studies were not the microscope.
History of the microorganisms' discovery
See also: History of biology
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, the Microbiologist first and the first to observe microorganisms using a microscope.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek was one of the first to observe microorganisms, using a microscope of his own design, and was one of the most important contributions to biology. Robert Hooke was the first to use a microscope to observe living things, his book Micrographia in 1665 contained descriptions of plant cells.
Before the discovery of microorganisms Leeuwenhoek in 1675, it had been a mystery why grapes could be turned into wine, milk into cheese, or why food would spoil. Leeuwenhoek did not make the connection between these processes and microorganisms, but using a microscope, it proves that there are life forms were not visible to the naked eye. Leeuwenhoek's discovery and the subsequent observations by Lazzaro Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur, ended longstanding belief that life spontaneously appeared from non-living substances during the process of deterioration.
Lazzaro Spallanzani found that the broth would sterilize it and kill any organisms in it. He also noted that the new micro-organisms can settle in a broth if the broth was exposed to air. Louis Pasteur is supplemented by the results of Spallanzani exposing boiled broths to air in the vessels that contained a filter to prevent all particles from crossing to the growth medium, and also in the vessels without any filter, with the air being admitted by a curved tube that would not allow dust particles to come into contact with the broth. By boiling the broth beforehand, Pasteur ensure that no microorganisms survived within the broths at the beginning of his experience. Nothing grew in the broths in the context of the experiment Pasteur. This means that living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather than spontaneously in the broth. Thus, Pasteur dealt the final blow to the theory of spontaneous generation and supported germ theory.
In 1767, Dr. JZ Holwell Indian doctors said at the time knew that the diseases caused by microbes, "They set as a principle, that the immediate cause of smallpox exists in the deadly form of all human beings and animals that mediation (or second) acting cause, which brings the first and throws in a state of fermentation, is a multitude of invisible animalcules floating in the atmosphere, that they are the cause of all disease outbreaks, but especially of smallpox. "
In 1876, Robert Koch established that microbes can cause disease. He noted that the blood of cattle who have been infected with anthrax always had large numbers of Bacillus anthracis. Koch discovered that he could transmit anthrax from a animal to another by taking a small sample of blood from the infected animal and injecting it into a healthy, which caused the animal to become healthy ill. He also concluded that it could grow bacteria in a broth, then injected into a healthy environment cause animal diseases, and. Based on these experiences, he has developed criteria for establishing a causal link between a microbe and a disease and it is now known as Koch's postulates. Although these assumptions can be applied in all cases, they retain a historical significance to the development of scientific thought and are still used today.
Classification and Structure
Evolutionary tree showing the common ancestors of the three domains of life. Bacteria are colored blue, eukaryotes red, green and archaea. The relative positions of some phyla are shown around the tree.
Microorganisms are can be found almost anywhere in the taxonomic organization of life on the planet. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi and some animals and plants. The Viruses are generally considered non-life and therefore are not microbes, although the field of microbiology also encompasses the study of viruses.
Prokaryotes
Main article: prokaryotes
The prokaryotes are organisms that have no cell nucleus and the membrane of other organelles related. They are almost always unicellular, although some species such as myxobacteria can be grouped into complex structures in the context of their life cycle.
Composed of two domains, bacteria and archaea, prokaryotes are the group most abundant and diverse organisms on Earth and inhabit virtually all environments where liquid water is available and the temperature is below 140 C. They are found in sea water, soil, air, animals leaflets gastro-intestinal, hot springs and even the depths of the earth's crust in rocks. Virtually all surfaces that have not been specifically sterilized are covered by prokaryotes. The number of prokaryotes on Earth is estimated at around five million trillion trillion pounds, or 5 1030, representing at least half of the biomass on Earth.
Bacteria
Main Article: Bacteria
Staphylococcus aureus, magnified about 10,000 x
The Bacteria are practically all invisible to the naked eye, a few extremely rare exceptions, such as namibiensis Thiomargarita. They no membranous organelles, and can run and play as single cells, but often gather in multicellular colonies. Their genome is usually a single loop of DNA, although they can also harbor small pieces of DNA called plasmids. These plasmids can be transferred between cells through bacterial conjugation. The bacteria are surrounded by a cell wall that provides strength and rigidity of their cells. They reproduce by fission or sometimes by budding, but do not undergo sexual reproduction. Some species form extraordinarily resilient spores, but for bacteria it is a survival mechanism, not reproduction. Under optimal conditions bacteria can grow rapidly and can double as briefly every 10 minutes.
Archaea
Main article: Archaea
Archaea are single-celled organisms that lack nuclei. In the past, differences between bacteria and archaea are not recognized and archaea were classified with bacteria in the kingdom Monera. However, 1990, the microbiologist Carl Woese proposed three-domain system that divided living organisms into bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. Archaea bacteria differ in both their genetics and biochemistry. For example, while the bacterial cell membranes are made from phosphoglycerides with ester linkages, are membranes made of lipids Archean ether.
Archaea were originally described in extreme environments, such as sources hot water, but have since been found in all habitat types. Only now are scientists beginning to understand how archaea are common in the environment, with the Crenarchaeota are the most common form of living in the ocean, dominating the ecosystems under 150 m depth. These organisms are also common in soil and play a vital role in ammonia oxidation.
Eukaryotes
Ostreococcus is smallest known free living eukaryote with an average size of 0.8 m
Main article: Eukaryote
Most living things that are visible to the eye naked in the adult form are eukaryotes, including humans. However, a large number of eukaryotes are also microorganisms. Unlike bacteria and archaea, eukaryotes contain organelles such as the nucleus of the cell, the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria in cells. The kernel is a organelle that houses the DNA which constitutes the genome of a cell. DNA itself is arranged in complex chromosomes. Mitochondria are organelles vital in metabolism as they are on the site of citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. They evolved from symbiotic bacteria and retain a remnant genome. As bacteria, plant cells have cell walls, and contain organelles such as chloroplasts in addition to the organelles in other eukaryotes. Produce energy from light by chloroplasts bacterial photosynthesis, and were also originally symbiotic.
eukaryotic unicellular eukaryotic organisms that consist of a single cell throughout their life cycle. This qualification is important since most multicellular eukaryotes composed of a single cell called a zygote at the beginning of their life cycle. microbial eukaryotes are haploid or diploid, and some organizations multiple cell nuclei (see coenocyte). However, all micro-organisms are microscopic unicellular eukaryotes as some are made from several cells.
Protista
Main article: Protista
Groups of eukaryotes, protists are most commonly unicellular and microscopic. This is a diverse group of organizations that are not easy to classify. Several algae species are multicellular protists, and slime molds have unique life cycles involving switching between forms unicellular, colonial and multicellular. The number of species of protozoa is uncertain, because we may have identified only a small proportion of the diversity in this group of organisms.
A microscopic mite Lorryia formosa.
Pets
Main article: Micro-animals
Generally animals are multicellular, but some are too small to be visible to the naked eye. arthropods include microscopic dust mites and dust mites. Microscopic crustaceans include copepods and cladocerans, while many nematodes are too small to be visible to the naked eye. Another group particularly frequent microscopic animals are the rotifers, which are filter feeders that are usually found in freshwater. Micro-animals reproduce sexually and asexually and may reach new habitats as eggs that survive Environments difficult to kill the adult animal. However, some simple animals such as rotifers and nematodes, can dry completely and remain dormant for long periods of time.
Mushrooms
Main article: Fungus
The fungi have several unicellular species, such as yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe). Certain fungi such as Candida albicans pathogens, can undergo switching Phenotypic and grow as individual cells, in some circles, and other filamentous hyphae. The fungi reproduce asexually at a time by binary fission or budding, as well by producing spores, which are called conidia when produced asexually, or basidiospores when is produced sexually.
Plants
Main article: Plant
The green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include Many microscopic organisms. Although some green algae are classified as protists, others such as charophytes embryophytes classified with plants, which are the group most familiar terrestrial plants. Algae can grow as individual cells or in long chains of cells. The green algae are unicellular flagellates and colonial, usually but not always with two flagella per cell and colonial coccoid, and filamentous forms. In Charales which algae are most closely related to higher plants, cells differentiate into several distinct tissues within the body. There are about 6000 species of green algae.
Habitats and ecology
Micro-organisms are present in almost every habitat present in the Nature. Even in hostile environments such as the poles, deserts, geysers, rocks and the deep sea. Some types of micro-organisms have adapted to extreme conditions and sustained colonies; these organisms are known as extremophiles. Extremophiles have been isolated from rocks near 7 km beneath the surface of the Earth, and it has been suggested that the amount of living organisms below the earth surface can be comparable to the amount of life on or above the surface. Extremophiles have been known to survive for an extended period in a vacuum, and can be very resistant to radiation, that perhaps they can survive in space. Many types of microorganisms have intimate symbiotic relationships with other key agencies some of which are mutually beneficial (mutualism), while others may be harmful to the host organism (parasitism). If micro-organisms can cause disease in the host, they are known as pathogens.
Extremophiles
Main article: extremophiles
Extremophiles are microbes that have adapted so they can survive and even thrive in conditions that are normally fatal to most forms of life. For example, some species have been found in extreme environments following:
Temperature: as high as 130 C (266 F), as low as 17 ° C (1.4 F),
Acidity / alkalinity: pH less than 0, up to pH 11.5
Salinity: until saturation
Pressure: up to 1.000 to 2.000 atm, 0 atm (eg vacuum of space)
Radiation: up 5kGy
Extremophiles are significant in different ways. They extend terrestrial life into much of the hydrosphere of the Earth's crust and the atmosphere, their own coping mechanisms of the evolution of their extreme environment can be exploited in bio-technology, and their existence in extreme conditions increases the potential for extraterrestrial life.
Soil microbes
The nitrogen cycle in soils depends on the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. One way this can occur is in the nodules in the roots of legumes that contain symbiotic bacteria of the genera Rhizobium Mesorhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and Azorhizobium.
symbiotic microbes
Symbiotic microbes such as fungi and algae form an association in lichens. Some fungi form symbioses with trees mycorhizzal that increase the supply of nutrients to the tree.
Importance
Microorganisms are essential to humans and the environment, as they participate in the Earth cycles of elements such as the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle, and performing other key roles in almost all ecosystems, such as recycling are other organisms' dead and waste decomposition. Microbes also have an important place in most higher-order multicellular organisms as symbionts. Many blame the failure Biosphere 2 on an improper balance of microbes.
Use in foods
Main article: Fermentation (food)
Micro-organisms are used in brewing, winemaking, cooking, pickling and other processes of food intake.
They are also used to control the process of fermentation in the production of fermented dairy products like yogurt and cheese. The cultures also flavor and aroma, and inhibit agencies reactions.
Use in water treatment
Main article: Sewage Treatment
microbes are specially cultivated used in the biological treatment of sewage and industrial effluents, a process known as bioaugmentation.
Using energy
Article See also: Algae fuel cellulosic ethanol, and ethanol fermentation
The microbes used in fermentation to produce ethanol, and the biogas reactors to produce methane. Scientists are researching the use of algae to produce liquid fuels, and bacteria to convert different types of agricultural waste and urban fuel use.
Use science
Microbes are also essential tools in biotechnology, biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology. The yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) are important model organisms in science because they are simple eukaryotes that can be increased rapidly in many and are easily manipulated. They are particularly useful in genetics, genomics and proteomics. Microbes can be exploited for uses such as creating steroids and treating skin diseases. Scientists are also considering using microbes for fuel cells life, and as a solution to pollution.
Use in War
Main article: Biological warfare
In the Middle Ages, the corpses were thrown castles in patients over the seats using catapults and other siege engines. People close to the corpses were exposed to Agent lethal pathogen and were likely to spread to other pathogens that.
Importance in human health
digestion of human
Health More information: flora of man # bacterial flora of man and man
Micro-organisms can form a relationship endosymbiotic with other, larger organizations. Example, bacteria that live in the human digestive system contribute to immunity intestinal synthesis of vitamins like folic acid and biotin, complex carbohydrates ferment indigestible.
Diseases and Immunology
Article: Pathogens
Micro-organisms are the cause of numerous diseases. The agencies involved pathogenic bacteria, causing diseases such as fever, tuberculosis and anthrax; protozoa, causing diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness and toxoplasmosis, and also fungi causing diseases such as as ringworm, candidiasis or histoplasmosis. However, other diseases such as influenza, yellow fever or AIDS are caused by pathogenic viruses, which are generally not classified as living organisms and therefore are not micro-organisms by the strict definition. In 2007, any clear examples of the Archean pathogens are known, although a relationship was proposed between the presence of some methanogens and human periodontal disease.
Importance of ecology
For more information: Decomposition
Microbes are essential for decomposition processes necessary nitrogen cycle and other elements to return to the natural world.
Hygiene
Main article: Hygiene
Hygiene is the prevention of infection or food spoiling by eliminating environmental microorganisms. As micro-organisms, especially bacteria are found everywhere, it means in most cases, reducing pest microorganisms to acceptable levels. However, in some cases, it is necessary that an object or a substance completely sterile, ie devoid of all living entities and viruses. A good example of this is a hypodermic needle.
In micro-organisms in food preparation are reduced by preservation methods (such as adding vinegar), utensils cleaning materials used in the preparation, storage, short periods or by cool temperatures. If complete sterility is needed, the two most common methods are irradiation and the use of an autoclave, which resembles a pressure cooker.
There are several methods to study the level of hygiene in a sample of food, drinking water, equipment etc. Water samples can be filtered through a fine mesh strainer. This filter is then placed in a nutrient medium. Micro-organisms on the filter then grow to form a visible colony. Microorganisms harm can be detected in foods by placing a sample in a nutrient broth enrichment for agencies. Various methods as selective media or PCR, can then be used for detection. The hygiene of hard surfaces such as kitchen utensils, can be tested by touching them with a solid piece of nutrient medium, and micro-organisms to grow on this.
There are no conditions which all micro-organisms to grow and therefore often several different methods are needed. Example, a feed sample can be analyzed on three different nutrient media for indicating the presence of "total" bacteria (conditions where many, but not all, Bacteria grow), molds (conditions where bacterial growth is prevented by eg antibiotics) and coliform bacteria (these indicate a sewage contamination).
See also
Biological warfare
Biology
Culture collection
Microbial intelligence
Nanobacterium
petri dish
Prokaryotic
Soil contamination
Coloring
Virus
Bacterium
Protozoa
Mushrooms
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External links
Our Planet microbial A free poster of the National Academy of Sciences on the role positive microbes.
"Uncharted Microbial World: microbes and their activities in the environment" Report of the American Academy Microbiology
Understanding microbial planet: the new science of Metagenomics A 20-page booklet providing basic education Overview of microbial metagenomics and our planet.
Eukaryotic Tree of Life
Microbe Genome News Network News
Germs Germs list Patent Related Patents
Medical Microbiology textbook online
Under the microscope: A look at all the little things online microbiology textbook by Timothy Paustian and Gary Roberts, University of Wisconsin-Madison
MicrobeID.com Online Databases bacteria identification and probabilistic identification key
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